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Headquarters of in Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China has been among the world's fastest-growing economies, relying largely on investment- and export-led growth. In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by. Retrieved 27 November 2012.

Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership, and is one of the leading examples of. They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing.

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For other uses, see. China, officially the People's Republic of China PRC , is a country in and the , with a population of around. Covering approximately 9,600,000 square kilometers 3,700,000 sq mi , it is the third- or fourth-largest country by total area, depending on the source consulted. Governed by the , the state exercises jurisdiction over 22 , five , four , , , and , and the of and. For millennia, China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies, or , beginning with the semi-legendary in 21st century BCE. Since then, China has numerous times. In the 3rd century BCE, and established. The succeeding , which ruled from 206 BC until 220 AD, saw some of the at that time, including and the , along with agricultural and medical improvements. The invention of and in the 618—907 and 960—1127 completed the. Tang culture spread widely in , as the new brought traders to as far as and. Dynastic rule ended in 1912 with the , when a replaced the. The resulted in a division of territory in 1949, when the established the People's Republic of China, a on , while the -led government retreated to the island of. Since the introduction of , has been one of the world's with annual growth rates consistently above 6 percent. As of 2016 , it is the world's second-largest economy by and largest by PPP. China is also the world's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a recognized and has the world's and. The PRC is a of the as it replaced the ROC in 1971, as well as an active global partner of. China is also a leading member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the , , , , the , and the. China is a and a major within Asia, and has been characterized as a. Portuguese China is thought to derive from Chīn , which may be traced further back to. Cīna was first used in early scripture, including the 5th century BCE and the 2nd century BCE. In 1655, suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the 221—206 BC , a proposal supported by many later scholars, although there are also a number of alternative suggestions. It was then applied to the area around present-day Luoyang during the and then to China's before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the. Before the PRC's establishment, the proposed name of the country was the People's Democratic Republic of China : ; : ; : Zhōnghuá Rénmín Mínzhǔ Gònghéguó during the first held on 15 June 1949. Archaeological evidence suggests that early inhabited China between 2. The hominid fossils of , a who , were discovered in a cave at near ; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000. The fossilized teeth of Homo sapiens dated to 125,000—80,000 have been discovered in in ,. Chinese existed in around 7000 BCE, around 6000 BCE, from 5800—5400 BCE, and dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the 7th millennium BCE constituted the earliest Chinese writing system. Early dynastic rule , the ruins of the capital of the late 14th century BCE According to Chinese tradition, the was the , which emerged around 2100 BCE. The dynasty was considered by historians until scientific excavations found early sites at , Henan in 1959. It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period. The succeeding is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records. The Shang ruled the plain of the in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE. The Shang were conquered by the , who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year , only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the of the 5th—3rd centuries BCE, there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and army. Imperial China China's First Emperor, , is famed for having united the ' walls to form the. Most of the present structure, however, dates to the. The ended in 221 BCE after the conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state. He enacted Qin's reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of , , road widths i. His dynasty also in , , and. The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion. Following a during which the imperial library at , the emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and CE 220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the. The Han , with military campaigns reaching , , and , and the from. Han involvement in Central Asia and helped establish the land route of the , replacing the earlier path over the to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world. Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of in favor of , Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors. At its end, was swiftly overthrown by the. The Jin fell to upon the ascension of a ; the then and ruled northern China as the. The unified them as the , whose reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and , largely integrating them into Chinese culture. In the south, the general secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the. The various successors of these states became known as the , with the two areas finally reunited by the in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture and economy, constructed the , and patronized. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a with provoked widespread unrest. Under the succeeding and dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age. The Tang Empire returned control of the and the Silk Road, and made the capital a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the in the 8th century. In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade. A detail from , a 12th-century painting showing everyday life in the 's capital, present-day Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a , in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang, and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as and were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity. However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the. In 1127, and the capital were captured during the. The remnants of the Song retreated to. The 13th century brought the. In 1271, the leader established the ; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the as the. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that led the throughout the world, reaching as far as Africa. In the early years of the Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of and equality of. The stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against and led to an exhausted treasury. In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by. The committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu , then allied with Ming dynasty general , overthrew Li's short-lived and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. End of dynastic rule A 19th-century depiction of the 1850—1864 The , which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. Its conquest of the Ming 1618—1683 cost 25 million lives and the. After the ended, the further conquest of the added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire. In the mid-19th century, the dynasty experienced Western imperialism in the with Britain and France. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow for foreign nationals, and cede to the British under the 1842 , the first of the. The 1894—95 resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the , as well as the cession of Taiwan to. The invaded China to defeat the anti-foreign and their Qing backers. The Qing dynasty also began experiencing in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the failed that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the 1862—77 in the northwest. The initial success of the of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s. In the 19th century, the great began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the , in which between 9 and 13 million people died. The drafted a in 1898 to establish a modern , but these plans were thwarted by the. The ill-fated anti-foreign of 1899—1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms, the of 1911—12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the. Republic of China 1912—1949 Yuan Shikai left and Sun Yat-sen right with flags representing the early republic. On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and of the the KMT or Nationalist Party was proclaimed provisional president. However, the presidency was later given to , a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own , he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic. After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under , the then Principal of the , was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the. The in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the , PLA against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the PLA retreated in the , until Japanese aggression and the 1936 forced Chiang to confront. Japanese forces committed numerous against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died. An estimated 200,000 Chinese in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation. Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major , and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war. After the in 1945, Taiwan, including the , was returned to Chinese control. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the were never implemented in mainland China. People's Republic of China 1949—present Main article: Major combat in the ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of , and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only , , and their surrounding islands. On 21 September 1949, proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China. This was followed by a mass celebration in on 1 October, which became the new country's first. In 1950, the People's Liberation Army succeeded in from the ROC and. However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage throughout the 1950s. China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons. The Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million. However, the , a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation. In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the , sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council. After Mao's death, the was quickly arrested and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. The Communist Party loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives, and the were gradually disbanded in favor of working contracted to households. This marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an. China adopted its current on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the of brought sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11. The country formally joined the in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under and 's leadership in the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment, and caused. Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the , but centralized political control remained tight. Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by. During China's in November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as by. Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy, which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth. The also announced major reforms to the and prison system. The , , and mountain ranges separate China from much of and. The and , the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers 9,000 mi long and is bounded by the , , and seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the which has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the — the ancestor of the terrestrial s. Landscape and climate of in , The territory of China lies between and , and and. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the and the , there are extensive and densely populated , while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the of China's two major rivers, the and the. Other major rivers include the , , and. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the and the. The world's highest point, 8,848m , lies on the Sino-Nepalese border. China's climate is mainly dominated by and wet , which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist. The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's highly complex. A major environmental issue in China is the continued , particularly the Gobi Desert. Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of , prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of east Asia, including Korea and Japan. China's environmental watchdog, , stated in 2007 that China is losing 4,000 km 2 1,500 sq mi per year to desertification. Water quality, , and have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting in the Himalayas could potentially lead to for hundreds of millions of people. A , China's most famous and species, at the in China is one of 17 , lying in two of the world's major : the and the. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after and. The country signed the on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993. It later produced a , with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010. China is home to at least 551 species of the third-highest such number in the world , 1,221 species of birds eighth , 424 species of reptiles seventh and 333 species of amphibians seventh. Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world's largest population of. At least 840 in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for. Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005 , the country has over 2,349 , covering a total area of 149. The has recently been confirmed extinct. China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants, and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as and , along with over 120 bird species. The understorey of moist forests may contain thickets of. In higher montane stands of and , the bamboo is replaced by. Tropical and seasonal , though confined to and , contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China. China has over 10,000 recorded species of , and of them, nearly 6,000 are. Environmental issues The traffic in In recent decades, China has suffered from. While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic development. Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country; the estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China. And China is the country with the highest death toll because of air pollution. The country also has significant problems: 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011. In 2014, the internal freshwater resources per capita of China reduced to 2,062m 3, and it was below 500m 3 in the , while 5,920m 3 in the world. In China, heavy metals also cause environmental pollution. Heavy metal pollution is an inorganic chemical hazard, which is mainly caused by lead Pb , chromium Cr , arsenic As , cadmium Cd , mercury Hg , zinc Zn , copper Cu , cobalt Co , and nickel Ni. Five metals among them, Pb, Cr, As, Cd, and Hg, are the key heavy metal pollutants in China. Heavy metal pollutants mainly come from mining, sewage irrigation, the manufacturing of metal-containing products, and other related production activities. High level of heavy metal exposure can also cause permanent intellectual and developmental disabilities, including reading and learning disabilities, behavioral problems, hearing loss, attention problems, and disruption in the development of visual and motor function. According to the data of a national census of pollution, China has more than 1. The total volume of discharged heavy metals in the waste water, waste gas and solid wastes are around 900,000 tons each year from 2005—2011. However, China is the world's leading investor in and , with 52 billion invested in 2011 alone; it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects. By 2015, over 24% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources, while most notably from : a total installed capacity of 197 GW makes China the in the world. China also has the largest power capacity of and in the world. Political geography Map showing the ROC and PRC claims. The People's Republic of China is the country in the world by land area after , and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition of total area, the. China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km 2 3,700,000 sq mi. Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km 2 3,696,100 sq mi according to the , 9,596,961 km 2 3,705,407 sq mi according to the UN Demographic Yearbook, to 9,596,961 km 2 3,705,407 sq mi according to the. China has the , measuring 22,117 km 13,743 mi from the mouth of the to the. China , except Russia, which also borders 14. China extends across much of East Asia, bordering , , and in Southeast Asia; , , , , and in South Asia; , and in Central Asia; and , , and in and. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with , Japan, Vietnam, and the. The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and , with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against , , , , and. As China is a de facto , the holds ultimate power and authority over state and government serving as the. Local People's Congresses are , and higher levels of People's Congresses up to the NPC are by the People's Congress of the level immediately below. The political system is decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy. Government Main article: The is the titular , elected by the. The is the , presiding over the composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent president is , who is also the and the , making him China's. The incumbent premier is , who is also a senior member of the , China's de facto top decision-making body. There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels. However, the party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption. Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80—95% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey. Administrative divisions Main articles: , , and The People's Republic of China is divided into 22 , five , each with a designated minority group; four ; and two SARs which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions can be grouped into six regions, including , , , , and. China considers to be , although Taiwan is governed by the , which rejects the PRC's claim. None of the divisions are recognized by the ROC government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory. President and their wives at the Mar Lago resort in Florida The PRC has diplomatic relations with 175 countries and maintains. Its is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the. China was also a former member and leader of the , and still considers itself an advocate for. Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's at , in April 2011. SCO Members Observers Dialogue partners Observer applicants Disputed territories Under its interpretation of the , Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan, especially in the matter of armament sales. This policy may have led China to support states that are or repressive by Western nations, such as , North Korea and. China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia, and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council. Trade relations In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbours. China became a member of the WTO on 11 December 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new EAS framework as a forum for regional security issues. The EAS, which includes , India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the SCO , along with Russia and the Central Asian republics. China has a significant with the United States, its most important export market. In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage. China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with. China has the in the world. According to , China is planning to reduce the average tariff rate on imports from its trading partners by October 2018. In July 2018, China had also cut import tariffs on approximately 1,500 consumer products so as to open up the economy of the country. Territorial disputes Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighbouring states. For a larger map,. Ever since its establishment after the second , the PRC has claimed governed by the ROC , a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the as its , and as a part of and islands the ROC controls in the as a part of and. These claims are controversial because of the complicated , with the PRC treating the as one of its most important diplomatic principles. In addition to Taiwan, China is also involved in other international territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a and an undefined border with. China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the and the. On 21 May 2014 , speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial disputes peacefully. Emerging superpower status China is regularly hailed as a , with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a in the 21st century. Others, however, warn that and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses. Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform March in memory of Chinese laureate who died of organ failure while in government custody in 2017 The , social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, is still tightly restricted. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state. Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet, are routinely used to prevent collective action. In 2005, ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a very low level of press freedom. In 2014, China ranked 175th out of 180 countries. Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as by the hukou system, which controls access to. Property rights are often poorly protected, and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens. However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers. A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and also routinely criticize , alleging widespread violations such as detention without trial, , forced confessions, , restrictions of fundamental rights, and. Candlelight vigil on the 20th anniversary of the was first taught publicly in 1992. In 1999, when there were 70 million practitioners, the began, resulting in mass arrests, extralegal detention, and reports of torture and deaths in custody. The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in and , including violent police crackdowns and. The state has even sought to control offshore reporting of tensions in Xinjiang, intimidating foreign-based reporters by detaining their family members. The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the right to subsistence and economic development is a prerequisite to other types of human rights, and that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of. It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese , and average since the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial floods. Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization, although. Some major reform efforts have been conducted; for an instance in November 2013, the government announced plans to relax the one-child policy and abolish the much-criticized program, though human rights groups note that reforms to the latter have been largely cosmetic. According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 3,388,400 people are enslaved in modern-day China, or 0. State-sponsored slavery is part of the Chinese penal system, and there are over a thousand slave labour prisons and camps known collectively as the Laogai. Prisoners are not paid at all, and need their families to send money to them. Prisoners who refuse to work are beaten, and some are beaten to death. Many of the prisoners are political or religious dissidents, and some are recognized internationally as prisoners of conscience. Laogai in Chinese means forced labour and reform. A Chinese president said that they want to see two products coming out of the prisons: the man who has been reformed, and the product made by the man. Harry Wu, himself a former prisoner of the Laogai, filmed undercover footage of the Laogai, and was charged with stealing state secrets. For this, Harry Wu was sentenced to 15 years in prison, but only served 66 days before being deported to the United States. Main articles: and With 2. China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind. The PLA consists of the PLAGF , the PLAN , the PLAAF , and the PLARF. However, many authorities — including and the U. As a recognized state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a. According to a 2013 report by the , China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear , along with a number of. However, compared with the other four Permanent Members, China has relatively limited capabilities. To offset this, it has developed numerous power projection assets since the early 2000s — its entered service in 2012, and it maintains a substantial fleet of , including several and submarines. China has furthermore established a. A fighter aircraft China has made significant progress in modernising its air force in recent decades, purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the , and also manufacturing its own modern fighters, most notably the , and the , , , and. China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous and numerous. China has also updated its ground forces, replacing its ageing -derived inventory with numerous variants of the modern , and upgrading its battlefield and systems to enhance its capabilities. In addition, China has developed or acquired numerous advanced missile systems, including , and submarine-launched nuclear ICBMs. According to the 's data, China became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010—14, an increase of 143 percent from the period 2005—09. Chinese officials stated that spending on the military will rise to U. China and other major developing economies by , 1990—2013. The rapid economic growth of China blue is readily apparent. China had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Both cases put China out of 183 countries on the IMF list in global GDP per capita rankings. Main article: From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the , and the new Chinese leadership began to and move towards a more market-oriented under one-party rule. Inefficient SOEs were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership, and is one of the leading examples of. Headquarters of in Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China has been among the world's fastest-growing economies, relying largely on investment- and export-led growth. According to the IMF, China's between 2001 and 2010 was 10. Between 2007 and 2011, China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the countries' growth combined. According to the index announced by in February 2011, China has a very high 3G growth rating. Its high productivity, low labor costs and relatively good infrastructure have made it a global leader in manufacturing. However, the Chinese economy is highly energy-intensive and inefficient; China became the world's largest in 2010, relies on coal to supply over 70% of its energy needs, and surpassed the US to become the world's largest oil importer in September 2013. In the early 2010s, China's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles, weakening international demand for Chinese exports and fragility in the global economy. The building in 's financial district. Examples include, the provincial government in publicly admitted that the government has been when publishing it's economic data from 2011 to 2014, making an overclaim of over 20%. In the online realm, China's industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US, with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards. The Chinese online payment market is dominated by major firms such as , and. China in the global economy Share of world GDP PPP Year Share 1980 2. China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies, and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of goods. In 2017 the Institute of International Finance reported that China's debt had reached 304% of its GDP. In 2014, Fortune's list of the world's largest corporations included , with combined revenues of 5. The same year, reported that five of the world's ten largest were Chinese, including the , the. More than 75 percent of China's urban consumers are expected to earn between 60. According to the , the number of US dollar billionaires in China increased from 130 in 2009 to 251 in 2012, giving China the world's second-highest number of billionaires. However, in recent years, China's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer inflation, leading to increased government regulation. China has a high level of economic inequality, which has increased in the past few decades. In 2012, China's official was 0. A study conducted by showed that China's Gini coefficient actually had reached 0. Internationalization of the renminbi Main article: Following the 2008 global financial crisis, China realized the dependency on the US Dollar and the weakness of the international monetary system. The RMB Internationalization accelerated in 2009 when China established market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity. In November 2010, Russia began using the in its bilateral trade with China. This was soon followed by , , , the , and. As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world in 2013. Earliest known written formula for gunpowder, from the of 1044 CE. China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the. Ancient and , such as , , the , and the , became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use. By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement. The causes of this early modern continue to be debated by scholars to this day. After repeated by the European colonial powers and in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the , in which scientific research was part of central planning. After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the , and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed. Nonetheless, China's investment in basic and applied scientific research remains behind that of leading technological powers such as the United States and Japan. Chinese-born scientists have won the four times, the and once respectively, though most of these scientists conducted their Nobel-winning research in western nations. China is also the world's second-largest publisher of , producing 121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200 in leading international scientific journals. Chinese technology companies such as and have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing, and Chinese are consistently ranked among the. China is also expanding its use of industrial ; from 2008 to 2011, the installation of multi-role robots in Chinese factories rose by 136 percent. The is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national pride. In 1970, China launched its first satellite, , becoming the fifth country to do so independently. In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with 's spaceflight aboard ; as of 2015 , have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China's first space station module, , was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble by the early 2020s. In 2013, China successfully landed the lander and rover onto the lunar surface; China plans to collect lunar soil samples by 2017. In 2016, China's 2nd space station module, , was launched from aboard a rocket on 15 September 2016. Then successfully docked with Tiangong-2 on 19 October 2016. Internet penetration rates in East Asian and Chinese Regions 1995-2012 China currently has the of any country in the world, with over 1 billion users by February 2012. It also has the world's largest number of and , with over 688 million internet users as of 2016 , equivalent to around half of its population. The national average broadband connection speed is 9. As of July 2013 , China accounts for 24% of the world's internet-connected devices. Since 2011 China is the nation with the most installed telecommunication bandwidth in the world. By 2014, China hosts more than twice as much national bandwidth potential than the U. China Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband subscribers, while China Unicom serves more than 40 million. Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably and , have been accused of spying for the Chinese military. China is developing its own system, dubbed , which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012, and is planned to offer global coverage by 2020. Transport The is one of the. Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of and. In 2011 China's highways had reached a total length of 85,000 km 53,000 mi , making it the. In 1991, there were only six bridges across the main stretch of the Yangtze River, which bisects the country into northern and southern halves. By October 2014, there were. China has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and. Auto sales in 2009 exceeded 13. A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents, with cited as a possible cause—in 2011 alone, around 62,000 Chinese died in road accidents. In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles — as of 2012 , there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China. Terminal 3 of is the 2nd-largest airport terminal in the world , which are , are among , handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006. As of 2013 , the country had 103,144 km 64,091 mi of railways, the. All provinces and regions are connected to the rail network except. The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the holiday, when the takes place. In 2013, Chinese railways delivered 2. China's started construction in the early 2000s. Today it has over 19,000 kilometers 11,806 miles of dedicated lines alone, a length that exceeds rest of the world's high-speed rail tracks combined, making it the. With an annual ridership of over 1. The network includes the , the single longest HSR line in the world, and the , which has. The HSR track network is set to reach approximately 16,000 km 9,900 mi by 2020. More than two-thirds of the airports under construction worldwide in 2013 were in China, and expects that China's fleet of active commercial aircraft in China will grow from 1,910 in 2011 to 5,980 in 2031. With rapid expansion in , the have also joined the ranks of the. In 2013, Beijing's ranked second in the world by it was 26th in 2002. Since 2010, the and have ranked first and third in. Some 80% of China's airspace remains restricted for , and made up eight of the 10 worst-performing Asian airlines in terms of delays. China has over 2,000 , about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping. In 2012, the Ports of , , , , , , , ranked in the top in the world and. Main article: Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as. According to data presented by the of and in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to. In June 2010, there were 1,519 in China and 18 plants were added each week. The ongoing intends to abate water shortage in the north. Population of China from 1960-2017. The recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,370,536,875. The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0. Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has of its people out of poverty since 1978. In 2014, the urban unemployment rate of China was about 4. Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child. In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a. Data from the 2010 census implies that the may be around 1. According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth or the size of the total population. However, these scholars have been challenged. Their own counterfactual model of fertility decline without such restrictions implies that China averted more than 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, a number which may reach one billion by 2060 given all the lost descendants of births averted during the era of fertility restrictions, with one-child restrictions accounting for the great bulk of that reduction. The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the at birth. According to the 2010 census, the sex ratio at birth was 118. The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51. However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51. Ethnic groups A trilingual sign in , with on the top China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of which are the , who constitute about 91. The Han Chinese — the world's largest single ethnic group — outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except and. Ethnic minorities account for about 8. Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5. The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign citizens living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea 120,750 , the United States 71,493 and Japan 66,159. Languages 1990 map of Chinese ethnolinguistic groups There are as many as 292 in China. The languages most commonly spoken belong to the of the family, which contains spoken by 70% of the population , and of : including and , including and , including , and , , and. Languages of the , including , , and , are spoken across the and. Other ethnic minority languages in include , , and of the , and of the , and of the. Across and , local ethnic groups speak including , and several : , , , and. They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing. In 1956, the government introduced , which have supplanted the older in mainland China. Chinese characters are using the. Tibetan uses an based on an. Uyghur is most commonly written in based. The and the are both derived from the. Urbanization Map of the ten in China 2010 China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 55% in 2016. It is estimated that China's urban population will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population. As of 2012 , there are more than 262 million in China, mostly rural migrants seeking work in cities. China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million, including the seven cities with a population of over 10 million of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, and Wuhan. By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants. The figures in the table below are from the 2010 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations which includes suburban and rural populations. Education Beijing's , one of the Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises and , which together last for nine years. In 2010, about 82. The , China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percent of secondary school graduates are enrolled in higher education. This number increased significantly over the last years, reaching a tertiary school enrollment of 48. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and level. In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees. However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in , one of the , only totalled ¥3,204. Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2011, around 81. By 2007, there were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools, and 2,236 higher education institutions in China. As of 2010 , 94% of the population over age 15 are literate. In 1949, only 20% of the population could read, compared to 65. In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the PISA , a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance. Despite the high results, Chinese education has also faced for its emphasis on rote memorization and its gap in quality from rural to urban areas. Health Chart showing the rise of China's from 1970 to 2010 The , together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population. An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the , which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as , and , which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly , and experienced a significant rise in quality. By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage. In 2011, China was estimated to be the world's third-largest supplier of , but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of. As of 2012 , the average life expectancy at birth in China is 75 years, and the rate is 12 per thousand. Both have improved significantly since the 1950s. Rates of , a condition caused by , have declined from 33. Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by , hundreds of millions of , and an increase in among urban youths. China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of , although this has since been largely contained. In 2010, air pollution caused 1. Religion Temple of Fortune and Longevity, at the in , ,. It is an example of Taoist temple that hosts various chapels dedicated to popular gods. Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. Among the most popular are those of goddess of the seas , one of the two of the Chinese race , god of war and business , god of prosperity and richness , and many others. China is home to many of the , including the tallest of all, the in. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between religions, Buddhism, Taoism and local folk religious practice. According to a 2014 study, approximately 74% are either non-religious or practise Chinese folk belief, 16% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, 1% are Muslims, and 8% adhere to other religions including and. In addition to Han people's local religious practices, there are also various who maintain their. The various folk salvationisms today comprise 2—3% of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-identification is common within the intellectual class. Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include and the of the , also of , , and other peoples in the Northwest China. The , a center of and an UNESCO World Heritage site, symbolizes the. Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by and conservative philosophies. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious , which have their origins in the. The of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that , and were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective. Examinations and a remain greatly valued in China today. The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but were influenced by the and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, , and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state. Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like , were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted. Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival, and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide. China is now the , with 55. It also experiences an enormous volume of ; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012 alone. Literature The stories in are common themes in. Chinese literature is based on the literature of the. Concepts covered within the present a wide range of and subjects including , , , , and many others. Some of the most important early texts include the and the within the which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era. Inherited from the , developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the , Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and as represented by the which include , , and. Along with the fictions of and , it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the. Face-Changing Performer In the wake of the after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with for ordinary citizens. Various literary genres, such as , , and the , which is influenced by , emerged following the Cultural Revolution. All of them are featured by the precise skills of shaping, heating, colorway and flavoring. Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of and ingredients, as well as that is emphasized by. Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south, wheat based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions. And the bean products, such as and , remain as a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption. While pork dominates the meat market, there is also pork-free and. Southern cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of Chinese food, such as and , have emerged in the nations that play host to the. Sports racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport China has become a prime sports destination worldwide. The country gained the hosting rights for several major global sports tournaments including the , the , the upcoming and the upcoming. China has one of the in the world. There is evidence that archery shèjiàn was practiced during the. Swordplay jiànshù and , a sport loosely related to date back to China's early dynasties as well. The earliest indications reveal the game may have been played as early as the third century BCE. Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China. The and the American have a huge following among the people, with native or ethnic Chinese players such as and held in high esteem. China's professional football league, now known as , was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in Asia. Other popular sports in the country include , , , and. In addition, China is home to a huge number of , with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012. Many more traditional sports, such as racing, and are also popular. China has since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC. China hosted the in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals — of any participating nation that year. China also won the most medals of any nation at the , with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals. In 2011, in Guangdong, China hosted the. China hosted the in Tianjin and the in. Beijing and its nearby city of will also collaboratively host the , which will make Beijing the first city in the world to hold both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics. It also excludes the 5,800 km 2 or 2,200 sq mi , 37,244 km 2 or 14,380 sq mi and other territories in dispute with India. The total area of China is listed as 9,572,900 km 2 3,696,100 sq mi by the Encyclopædia Britannica. For further information, see. See for more information. O Grande Reino da China... Even those texts that did survive had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or forgery. The of the were said to have been found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km 2 3,618,780 sq mi land area plus inland water only. 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Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted. Retrieved 31 May 2015. However, the recommended alternative to doing all those steps anytime you wish to use a different proxy, is to use our homemade limbo switcher that can simplify the whole process to just a few mouse clicks. However, the Chinese economy is highly energy-intensive and inefficient; China became the world's largest in 2010, relies on coal to supply over 70% of its energy needs, and surpassed the US to become the world's largest oil ring in September 2013. The figures in the table below are from the 2010 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations which includes suburban and rural populations. Territorial sites da china Map depicting territorial elements between the PRC and neighbouring states. Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization, although. Retrieved 2 December 2013. The 13th century brought the.